Stefan Sütterlin

• Eikeseth, Fillip Ferreira; Pedersen, Geir; Stubhaug, Audun; Sütterlin, Stefan & Kvarstein, Gunnvald (2026). Psychometric evaluation of the Level of Personality Functioning Scale - Brief Form 2.0 in adults with chronic pain. Scandinavian Journal of Pain. ISSN 1877-8860. 26(1). doi: 10.1515/sjpain-2025-0037. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objectives Chronic pain and personality disorders frequently co-occur. This co-occurrence may pose challenges in pain management and should be addressed by clinicians to optimize outcomes. The Level of Personality Functioning Scale – Brief Form 2.0 (LPFS-BF) is a time-efficient screening tool for impairments in personality functioning based on the Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorders. Methods This cross-sectional study evaluates the psychometric properties of the LPFS-BF in a sample of adults with chronic pain. Data was retrieved from the Oslo University Hospital Pain Registry and includes 892 participants referred to outpatient pain management. The psychometric properties of the LPFS-BF were investigated in terms of factor structure, scale reliability, and concurrent validity with anxiety and depression, health-related quality of life, and past week usual pain intensity. Results Mean age was 49 years and 64 % were female. A bifactor structure showed best model fit: Comparative fit index=0.995, Tucker-Lewis index=0.993, root mean square error of approximation=0.023, standardized root mean square residual=0.030. Scale reliability was good for the general factor (ω t =0.89, ω h =0.79), poor for the self domain (ω t =0.25, ω h =0.05), and questionable for the interpersonal domain (ω t =0.68, ω h =0.40). Explained common variance for the general factor was 68 % which supported essential unidimensionality. The magnitudes of the associations between the LPFS-BF and the investigated variables were comparable to previous research, thus supporting its concurrent validity. Conclusions The results suggest that the LPFS-BF is best viewed as a unidimensional scale in the current sample and support the LPFS-BF as a valid and reliable screening tool for impairments in personality functioning among individuals with chronic pain.

• Müller, Lea; Juozapavičius, Aušrius; Okhrimchuk, Volodymyr & Sütterlin, Stefan (2025). Dictionary Attack with Transformed Russian Words using QWERTY Keyboard Layout. Baltic Journal of Modern Computing. ISSN 2255-8942. 13(4), p. 919–932. doi: 10.22364/bjmc.2025.13.4.09. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Sütterlin, Stefan; Canham, Matthew; Hermansen, Daniel & Knox, Benjamin James (2025). The UnCODE System: A Neurocentric Systems Approach for Classifying the Goals and Methods of Cognitive Warfare. Journal of Information Warfare. ISSN 1445-3312. 24(4), p. 67–90. doi: https:/www.jinfowar.com/journal/volume-24-issue-4/uncode-system-neurocentric-systems-approach-classifying-goals-methods-cognitive-warfare. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Cognitive Warfare leverages advances in science and technology to influence how populations think and behave. There is currently no unified framework for conceptualizing its goals and methods. This paper introduces the Unplug, Corrupt, disOrganize, Diagnose, Enhance (UnCODE) system to classify Cognitive Warfare strategies. UnCODE is neurocentric, focusing on how adversarial actions affect neural information processing in individuals, algorithms, or societies. It defines five goal categories and divides methods into direct and indirect neural access. Being domain- and species-agnostic, UnCODE enables interdisciplinary understanding of attack strategies and serves as a unifying framework for analysing Cognitive Warfare across contexts.

• Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Juozapavičius, Aušrius; Lapin, Kristina; Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James & Sütterlin, Stefan (2025). Human-Centric Approach to Cyber Threat Identification: The Role of Cognition, Experience, and Education in Decision-Making. Journal of Cases on Information Technology (JCIT). ISSN 1548-7717. 27(1), p. 1–13. doi: 10.4018/JCIT.368220. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study explores the impact of human factors on cybersecurity, emphasizing how cognitive biases and the blend of knowledge, experience, and education affect cyber threat detection. It reveals that specialized education and experience enhance the ability to identify complex threats. The research, using a gamified questionnaire, assesses decision-making in simulated cyber attacks, highlighting the value of domain expertise in critical tasks like threat identification and response. It suggests further research into confidence and self-efficacy's roles in cybersecurity and underscores the need for focused training to improve detection skills and incident reporting, aiming to bolster cybersecurity defences.

• Eikeseth, Fillip Ferreira; Pedersen, Geir; Hummelen, Benjamin; Sütterlin, Stefan; Stubhaug, Audun & Kvarstein, Elfrida Hartveit [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Pain prevalence rates and the mediating role of negative affect in adults referred to personality disorder treatment: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Pain. ISSN 1526-5900. 26. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2024.104724. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Personality disorders (PDs) are prevalent among individuals with chronic pain, but less is known about the prevalence of pain in the PD population. This study therefore sought to explore the prevalence of current or everyday pain among individuals referred to outpatient PD treatment, and further explore the mediating role of negative affect in the relationship between PD severity and current pain. Data was retrieved from the Norwegian Network for PDs’ quality register which included 4361 participants. Pain was operationalized using the EQ-5D-3L “pain or discomfort” item and four SCL-90-R pain-related items (“pain bothersomeness”). Rates of self-reported pain were explored both pre and post treatment to determine the persistency of the pain-related symptoms. The role of negative affect in the relationship between PD severity and pain was investigated by linear regression analysis. A substantial burden of pain-related symptoms was demonstrated, as 71 % and 80 % reported moderate to extreme pain or discomfort and pain bothersomeness, respectively. Muscle soreness was the most common pain (59 %) followed by headache (48 %), low back pain (46 %), and heart or chest pain (34 %). Moderate to extreme pain or discomfort was persistent for 77 % of the participants who provided end of treatment data (mean treatment duration was 82 weeks). Negative affect mediated the relationship between PD severity and pain. To our knowledge, this is the first large-scale study on everyday pain in patients with PDs. The findings reveal that moderate to extreme pain is prevalent among persons with PDs and that this co-occurrence is driven by negative affect.

• Lande, Natalie Marie; Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Sætren, Sjur Skjørshammer; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio & Sütterlin, Stefan (2023). The Role of Emotion Regulation for General Self-Efficacy in Adolescents Assessed Through Both Neurophysiological and Self-Reported Measures. Psychology Research and Behavior Management. 16, p. 3373–3383. doi: 10.2147/PRBM.S406702. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Self-efficacy, the belief in one’s ability and capacity to organize and execute actions required to achieve desired results, is associated with adolescent academic achievement and reduced risk for psychopathology. Adolescent emotion regulation represents an important component in the relationship between self-efficacy and developmental outcomes, but the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms are poorly understood. It is unclear how emotion regulation strategies, which change with experience, and emotion regulation capacity, which is largely determined by genetics, contribute to the development of self-efficacy. Aim: The present study aims to explore the relationship between emotion regulation and self-efficacy in adolescents. We hypothesize that neurophysiological emotion regulation capacity moderates the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and self-efficacy. Methods: The present study applied a cross-sectional design. A sample of high-school students (N = 45, nfemale = 31, age = 17– 18) provided answers on the General Self-Efficacy Questionnaire and the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. Vagal tone was used as an indicator for emotion regulation capacity. Results: In the initial correlational analysis, reappraisal, but not expressive suppression nor vagal tone was associated with self-efficacy. Vagal tone was not associated with any self-report measures of emotion regulation or self-efficacy. Contrary to our hypothesis, vagal tone did not moderate the relationship between emotion regulation and self-efficacy. Conclusion: This is the first study assessing the relationship between neurophysiological indicators of emotion regulation and self-efficacy. Our results do not indicate that vagal tone moderates the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and general self-efficacy. Future studies should also assess the possible influence of metacognition and interoception on relationships.

• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Hoffmann, Lukas & Sütterlin, Stefan (2023). Gamification as a neuroergonomic approach to improving interpersonal situational awareness in cyber defense. Frontiers in Education. 8. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2023.988043. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In cyber threat situations, the establishment of a shared situational awareness as a basis for cyber defense decision-making results from adequate communication of a Recognized Cyber Picture (RCP). RCPs consist of actively selected information and have the goal of accurately presenting the severity and potential consequences of the situation. RCPs must be communicated between individuals, but also between organizations, and often from technical to non-/less technical personnel. The communication of RCPs is subject to many challenges that may affect the transfer of critical information between individuals. There are currently no common best practices for training communication for shared situational awareness among cyber defense personnel. The Orient, Locate, Bridge (OLB) model is a pedagogic tool to improve communication between individuals during a cyber threat situation. According to the model, an individual must apply meta-cognitive awareness (O), perspective taking (L), and communication skills (B) to successfully communicate the RCP. Gamification (applying game elements to non-game contexts) has shown promise as an approach to learning. We propose a novel OLB-based Gamification design to improve dyadic communication for shared situational awareness among (technical and non-technical) individuals during a cyber threat situation. The design includes the Gamification elements of narrative, scoring, feedback, and judgment of self. The proposed concept contributes to the educational development of cyber operators from both military and civilian organizations responsible for defending and securing digital infrastructure. This is achieved by combining the elements of a novel communication model with Gamification in a context in urgent need for educational input.

• Sütterlin, Stefan; Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Mägerle, Sophia; Glöckler, Sandra; Wolf, Leandra & Schray, Julian [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2023). Individual Deep Fake Recognition Skills are Affected by Viewer’s Political Orientation, Agreement with Content and Device Used. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS). ISSN 0302-9743. 14019(9). doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-35017-7_18. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  AI-generated “deep fakes” is increasingly used by cybercriminals conducting targeted and tailored social engineering attacks, and for influencing public opinion. To raise awareness and efficiently train individuals in recogniz-ing deep fakes, understanding individual differences in the ability to recognize them is central. Previous research suggested a close relationship between politi-cal attitudes and top-down perceptual and cognitive processing styles. In this study, we investigate the impact of political attitudes and agreement with the political message content on individual deep fake recognition skills. 163 adults (72 females = 44.2%) judged a series of video clips with politicians’ statements across the political spectrum regarding their authenticity and their agreement with the message content. Half of the presented videos were fabricated via lip-sync technology. In addition to agreement with each statement made, global po-litical attitudes towards social and economic topics were assessed via the Social and Economic Conservatism Scale (SECS). There were robust negative associa-tions between participants’ general and social conservatism and their ability to recognize fabricated videos, especially when where there was agreement with the message content. Deep fakes watched on mobile phones and tablets were considerably less likely to be recognized compared to when watched on station-ary computers. This is the first study to investigate and establish the association between political attitudes and interindividual differences in deep fake recogni-tion. The study supports recently published research suggesting relationships between conservatism and perceived credibility of conspiracy theories and fake news in general. Implications for further research are discussed.

• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Kullman, Kaur; Sütterlin, Stefan; Knox, Benjamin James; Engel, Don & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2023). A 3D mixed reality visualization of network topology and activity results in better dyadic cyber team communication and cyber situational awareness. Frontiers in Big Data. 6. doi: 10.3389/fdata.2023.1042783. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Cyber defense decision-making during cyber threat situations is based on human-to-human communication aiming to establish a shared cyber situational awareness. Previous studies suggested that communication inefficiencies were among the biggest problems facing security operation center teams. There is a need for tools that allow for more efficient communication of cyber threat information between individuals both in education and during cyber threat situations. Methods: In the present study, we compared how the visual representation of network topology and traffic in 3D mixed reality vs. 2D affected team performance in a sample of cyber cadets (N = 22) cooperating in dyads. Performance outcomes included network topology recognition, cyber situational awareness, confidence in judgements, experienced communication demands, observed verbal communication, and forced choice decision-making. The study utilized network data from the NATO CCDCOE 2022 Locked Shields cyber defense exercise. Results: We found that participants using the 3D mixed reality visualization had better cyber situational awareness than participants in the 2D group. The 3D mixed reality group was generally more confident in their judgments except when performing worse than the 2D group on the topology recognition task (which favored the 2D condition). Participants in the 3D mixed reality group experienced less communication demands, and performed more verbal communication aimed at establishing a shared mental model and less communications discussing task resolution. Better communication was associated with better cyber situational awareness. There were no differences in decision-making between the groups. This could be due to cohort effects such as formal training or the modest sample size. Conclusion: This is the first study comparing the effect of 3D mixed reality and 2D visualizations of network topology on dyadic cyber team communication and cyber situational awareness. Using 3D mixed reality visualizations resulted in better cyber situational awareness and team communication. The experiment should be repeated in a larger and more diverse sample to determine its potential effect on decision-making.

• Melnikovas, Aleksandras; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Maennel, Kaie; Brilingaitė, Agnė; Sütterlin, Stefan & Juozapavičius, Aušrius (2023). Teaching Pentesting to Social Sciences Students Using ExperientialLearning Techniques to Improve Attitudes towards PossibleCybersecurity Careers. Proceedings of the ... European conference on information warfare and security. ISSN 2048-8602. 22(1), p. 294–302. doi: 10.34190/eccws.22.1.1145. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Labor market analysis shows that there is a significant shortage of experienced cybersecurity professionals, and this trend is expected to continue in the future. In addition, young people who are reluctant to choose STEM subjects in school typically do not see cybersecurity as a part of their future because they believe it demands exclusive technical knowledge that is beyond their reach. We aimed to change this perception among students of the social sciences, assuming that by providing social science students with the basics of cybersecurity, it would be possible to raise their awareness and encourage them to consider this field as a potential career option. Our team has designed a concise technical course based on Kolb's model that employs experiential learning to provide students with a basic knowledge of ethical intrusion (penetration testing). During the 32-hour subject, cadet officers with no prior IT education experienced all the steps of hacking both into a remotely accessible and physically accessible computer, including initial reconnaissance, vulnerability scanning, exploitation, and privilege escalation. A hands-on practical task of breaking into a highly vulnerable remote computer allowed for the evaluation of knowledge and skills as well as the reinforcement of learning experiences. In order to assess how the students' perceptions of the cybersecurity profession have changed based on the theory of planned behavior, they were asked to provide feedback immediately after the course and one year later. The results indicate that the short, technically challenging, but practical course based on experiential learning had a significant and positive effect on participants' attitudes: they were substantially more likely to consider cybersecurity as a future career, and some of them began participating in other cybersecurity courses or activities. It is reasonable to assume, therefore, that providing similar technical courses to social science students will encourage them to pursue cybersecurity-related careers in the future.

• Knox, Benjamin James; Sütterlin, Stefan & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2023). Cognitive agility for improved understanding and self-governance: a human-centric AI enabler. In Carayannis, Elias & Grigoroudis, Evangelos (Ed.), Cover Handbook of Research on Artificial Intelligence, Innovation and Entrepreneurship Handbook of Research on Artificial Intelligence, Innovation and Entrepreneurship. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISSN 9781839106743. doi: 10.4337/9781839106750.00019. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a catalyst for innovation activity. This chapter looks at developers and entrepreneurs as key human actors forming a performance triad with the AI. Successful exploitation of AI capabilities in entrepreneurial contexts requires humans to successfully collaborate, prevent communication errors and maintain control over the AI. To achieve this, human enablers require cognitive agility. This skill is founded upon metacognition and relies on heightened domain cognisance and the ability to govern one’s own actions. These attributes can be trained through adaptive non-standards based forms of education. Failure to develop the necessary human factor attributes risks increasing the likelihood of compromising the triad and the catalytic effect of AI. Developing cognitive expertise can mitigate ethical issues, power imbalances, bias, and adversarial factors that present significant challenges to technological solutions.

• Firth, Andrea M.; Sütterlin, Stefan & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2023). The Role of Trait and State Mindfulness in Cognitive Performance of Male Adolescents. Psychology Research and Behavior Management. 16, p. 3939–3948. doi: 10.2147/PRBM.S409737. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: The number of mindfulness intervention projects is continually increasing. Within the educational environment, mindfulness has purported links to well-being, positive behaviour, educational and cognitive performance. Trait mindfulness is related to rational thinking and better performance in cognitive tests, suggesting that innate mindfulness ability contributes to self-regulation ability and thus the efficacy of mindfulness interventions. The current study investigates whether mindfulness is a moderating factor. It examines correlations between cognitive performance and trait mindfulness. The study investigates the influence of trait mindfulness on the ability of students to enter state mindfulness in an attempt to understand the role both types of mindfulness may have on cognitive performance. Participants and Method: Two-hundred and five male students aged fifteen and sixteen completed the adolescent version of the Mindfulness Awareness Scale, the Cognitive Reflection Test, and the Toronto Mindfulness Scale. Results: Hierarchical regression analysis found that state mindfulness was a predictor of cognitive reflection ability. ANOVA also found that having either trait or state mindfulness predicted higher cognitive reflection scores, but only state mindfulness had a significant effect on cognitive reflection. Trait mindfulness was not a moderating factor. Conclusion: Both state and trait aspects of mindfulness ability influence cognitive performance. Those with higher trait mindfulness ability are better able to enter state mindfulness and thus had better cognitive reflection scores. However, where it is possible to induce state mindfulness into those with low trait mindfulness, CRT scores were also higher although not significantly so.

• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Helgetun, Ivar & Sütterlin, Stefan (2023). Neurophysiological and emotional influences on team communication and metacognitive cyber situational awareness during a cyber engineering exercise. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 16(1092056). doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.1092056. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Cyber operations unfold at superhuman speeds where cyber defense decisions are based on human-to-human communication aiming to achieve a shared cyber situational awareness. The recently proposed Orient, Locate, Bridge (OLB) model suggests a three-phase metacognitive approach for successful communication of cyber situational awareness for good cyber defense decision-making. Successful OLB execution implies applying cognitive control to coordinate self-referential and externally directed cognitive processes. In the brain, this is dependent on the frontoparietal control network and its connectivity to the default mode network. Emotional reactions may increase default mode network activity and reduce attention allocation to analytical processes resulting in sub-optimal decision-making. Vagal tone is an indicator of activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal node of the frontoparietal control network and is associated with functional connectivity between the frontoparietal control network and the default mode network. Aim: The aim of the present study was to assess whether indicators of neural activity relevant to the processes outlined by the OLB model were related to outcomes hypothesized by the model. Methods: Cyber cadets (N = 36) enrolled in a 3-day cyber engineering exercise organized by the Norwegian Defense Cyber Academy participated in the study. Differences in prospective metacognitive judgments of cyber situational awareness, communication demands, and mood were compared between cyber cadets with high and low vagal tone. Vagal tone was measured at rest prior to the exercise. Affective states, communication demands, cyber situational awareness, and metacognitive accuracy were measured on each day of the exercise. Results: We found that cyber cadets with higher vagal tone had better metacognitive judgments of cyber situational awareness, imposed fewer communication demands on their teams, and had more neutral moods compared to cyber cadets with lower vagal tone. Conclusion: These findings provide neuroergonomic support for the OLB model and suggest that it may be useful in education and training. Future studies should assess the effect of OLB-ing as an intervention on communication and performance.

• Ptacek, Martin; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Steptoe, Karl J. & Sütterlin, Stefan (2023). Effectiveness of the mindfulness–acceptance–commitment approach: a meta-analysis. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. ISSN 1612-197X. doi: 10.1080/1612197X.2023.2180070. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The presented study evaluates the evidence base underpinning the use of the Mindfulness–Acceptance–Commitment approach (MAC) in applied sport psychology. To assess the effectiveness of the MAC protocol on improving mindfulness and psychological flexibility, and on enhancing sport performance and well-being among athletes, we used Robust Bayesian Meta-Analysis with Publication Selection Model-Averaging (RoBMAPSMA). In total, there were eleven controlled trials included in the meta-analysis. Results of the RoBMAPSMA show: a moderate model-averaged effect size estimate for developing mindfulness with strong evidence (g = 0.64, 95% CI 0.00–0.91, BFes = 25.35); a small model-averaged effect size estimate for experiential acceptance with anecdotal evidence (g = 0.36, 95% CI 0.00–0.92, BFes = 2.32); and a small model-averaged effect size estimate for improving sport performance with moderate evidence (g = 0.37, 95% CI 0.00–0.79, BFes = 3.27). Only one study assessed the effectiveness of the MAC protocol on well-being and averaged effect sizes ranged from 0.01 to 0.82. Based on the results of the meta-analysis, the Mindfulness–Acceptance–Commitment protocol can be effective in improving mindfulness. In addition, results suggest that the MAC protocol might be effective in improving sport performance. Currently available trials, however, do not provide sufficient evidence supporting the MAC protocol's effectiveness in developing psychological flexibility, experiential acceptance, and promoting well-being among athletes.

• Maennel, Kaie; Brilingaite, A.; Bukauskas, Linas; Juozapavičius, Aušrius; Knox, Benjamin James & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2023). A Multidimensional Cyber Defence Exercise: Emphasis on Emotional, Social and Cognitive Aspects. Sage Open. 13(1). doi: 10.1177/21582440231156367. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hands-on and practical learning has been key to cybersecurity education and training success. Cyber Defence Exercises (CDX) are a common approach to training, testing, and verifying technical and soft skills. However, full-scale CDX implementation is also an expensive training event. In order to advance such exercises to the next level, CDX organisers should further focus on educational, psychological and cross-domain relationships. The paper discusses and proposes a multidimensional approach for CDX that balances cognitive, emotional and social aspects critical for successful interdisciplinary learning. We share our experience incorporating knowledge from well-known psychology theories to CDX. We derive and describe seven elementary ingredients if a CDX is to meet the interdisciplinary and critical thinking needs of defensive cyberspace operations.

• Andersen, Fredrik; Herikstad, Yngve; Sütterlin, Stefan & Dechsling, Anders (2023). Negotiating Consensus for Diverging Evidence. An Application of the Explanatory Approach to Guidelines for the Treatment of Substance Use Disorders and Addiction. In Zachmann, Karin; Bondio, Mariacarla Gadebusch; Jukola, Saana & Sparschuh, Olga (Ed.), Evidence Contestation: Dealing with Dissent in Knowledge Societies. Routledge. ISSN 9781003273509. p. 167–189. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen & Sütterlin, Stefan (2022). Prefrontally modulated vagal neuroimmunomodulation is associated with telomere length. Frontiers in Neuroscience. ISSN 1662-4548. 16. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2022.1063162. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Accumulated senescent cells are proposed to be one of the main drivers of age-related pathology such as dementia and cancer through disruption of tissue structure and function. We recently proposed the Neuro-Immuno-Senescence Integrative Model (NISIM), which relates prefrontally modulated vagal tone and subsequent balance between vagal and sympathetic input to the spleen to inflammatory responses leading to generation of reactive oxygen species and oxidative telomere damage. Aim: In this study, we assess inflammation as a mediator in the relationship between prefrontally modulated vagal tone and leukocyte telomere length (LTL). We also assess the relationship between a recently proposed index of vagal neuroimmunomodulation (vagal tone/inflammation ratio; NIM index) and telomere length. Methods: This study uses participant data from a large nationally representative longitudinal study since 1974 with a total of 45,000 Norwegian residents so far. A sub-sample of 131 participants from which ultrashort recordings (30 s) of vagal tone, c reactive protein, and LTL could be obtained were included in the study. Relationships were analyzed with Pearson’s correlations and hierarchical multiple linear regression using either vagal tone and CRP or the NIM index to predict telomere length. Results: Vagal tone was a significant positive predictor of telomere length but this was not mediated by c reactive protein, even after controlling for confounders. The NIM index was a significant positive predictor of telomere length, also when controlling for confounders. In a follow-up analysis simultaneously comparing telomere length between groups with high and low values of vagal tone, and between groups with high and low NIM index values, telomere length was only significantly different between NIM index groups. Conclusion: This is the first study suggesting that prefrontally modulated vagal neuroimmunomodulation is associated with telomere length thus supporting the NISIM. Results indicate that the NIM index is a more sensitive indicator of vagal neuroimmunomodulation than vagal tone and CRP in isolation.

• Canham, Matthew; Sütterlin, Stefan; Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James; Glenister, Lauren & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2022). Ambiguous Self-Induced Disinformation (ASID) Attacks: Weaponizing a Cognitive Deficiency. Journal of Information Warfare. ISSN 1445-3312. 21(3), p. 43–58. doi: 10.31219/osf.io/2kbf9. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Humans quickly and effortlessly impose context onto ambiguous stimuli, as demonstrated through psychological projective testing and ambiguous figures. This feature of human cognition may be weaponized as part of an information operation. Such Ambiguous Self-Induced Disinformation (ASID) attacks would employ the following elements: the introduction of a culturally consistent narrative, the presence of ambiguous stimuli, the motivation for hypervigilance, and a social network. ASID attacks represent a low-risk, low-investment tactic for adversaries with the potential for significant reward, making this an attractive option for information operations within the context of grey-zone conflicts.

• Sütterlin, Stefan; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Veng, Karl; Eck, Jonathan & Fritschi, Jonas [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2022). The Role of IT Background for Metacognitive Accuracy, Confidence and Overestimation of Deep Fake Recognition Skills. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS). ISSN 0302-9743. 13310, p. 103–119. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-05457-0_9. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The emergence of synthetic media such as deep fakes is considered to be a disruptive technology shaping the fight against cybercrime as well as enabling political disinformation. Deep faked material exploits humans’ interpersonal trust and is usually applied where technical solutions of deep fake authentication are not in place, unknown, or unaffordable. Improving the individual’s ability to recognise deep fakes where they are not perfectly produced requires training and the incorporation of deep fake-based attacks into social engineering resilience training. Individualised or tailored approaches as part of cybersecurity awareness campaigns are superior to a one-size-fits-all approach, and need to identify persons in particular need for improvement. Research conducted in phishing simulations reported that persons with educational and/or professional background in information technology frequently underperform in social engineering simulations. In this study, we propose a method and metric to detect overconfident individuals in regards to deep fake recognition. The proposed overconfidence score flags individuals overestimating their performance and thus posing a previously unconsidered cybersecurity risk. In this study, and in line with comparable research from phishing simulations, individuals with IT background were particularly prone to overconfidence. We argue that this data-driven approach to identifying persons at risk enables educators to provide a more targeted education, evoke insight into own judgement deficiencies, and help to avoid the self-selection bias typical for voluntary participation.

• Pirta-Dreimane, Rūta; Brilingaitė, Agnė; Majore, Ginta; Knox, Benjamin James; Lapin, Kristina & Parish, Karen [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2022). Application of intervention mapping in cybersecurity education design. Frontiers in Education. 7. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.998335. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Education in Cybersecurity is considered one of the key challenges facing the modern digitized world. Several frameworks, e.g., developed by NIST or ENISA, have defined requirements for cybersecurity education but do not give recommendations for their development. Developing appropriate education offerings need to incorporate theory-based approaches that are evidence supported. Adopting the Intervention Mapping paradigm, we propose an educational framework incorporating validated theoretical and evidence-based approaches to cybersecurity education encompassing stakeholders' input, identified competency needs, and how to implement and evaluate learning outcomes. This paper presents a case study of how Intervention Mapping can be used to help design cybersecurity education, discuss challenges in educational and professional aspects of cybersecurity, and present an applied educational approach based on Intervention Mapping and its evaluation.

• Firth, Andrea M.; Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Sütterlin, Stefan & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2022). The Effect of Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback Training on Vagal Tone in Athletically Talented Secondary School Students. Sports. 10(10). doi: 10.3390/sports10100146. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study examines whether twelve sessions of heart rate variability biofeedback training would improve vagally mediated heart rate variability. If so, it would go some way in explaining why breathing based interventions reduces clinical symptoms and improves non-clinical performance outcomes. Methods: Thirty participants (N = 30, Nfemale = 13) aged 14–13-year-old talented athletes from a sport specialist school in SE London UK, were randomly divided into three groups, a control group, a psychology skills training combined with heart rate variability biofeedback training group, and a heart rate variability biofeedback only group. For the combined group a variety of typical psychological skill training techniques were also used. Results: Paired participant t test and the Wilcoxon Signed Rank test found non-significant differences between pre- and post-intervention measurements of SDNN, HF Log, pNN50 and RMSSD Log heart rate variability. Non-significant results remained even after pooling the biofeedback training groups (n = 19). Conclusion: Our results do not indicate that beneficial effects associated with focused breathing training can be attributed to improved vagal tone. Further investigation into the underlying mechanisms of the benefits of focused breathing techniques is necessary to maximize clinical and non-clinical outcomes.

• Neyer, Sabrina E.; Witthöft, Michael; Cropley, Mark; Pawelzik, Markus; Sütterlin, Stefan & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2022). The cortisol awakening response at admission to hospital predicts depression severity after discharge in major depressive disorder patients—A replication study. Frontiers in Neuroscience. ISSN 1662-4548. 16. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2022.952903. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The cortisol awakening response is a non-invasive biomarker for hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) dysregulation, reflecting accumulated stress over time. In a previous study we reported that a blunted CAR before an inpatient treatment predicted self-reported depressive symptoms six weeks and six months after discharge (XXXXXXXXX et al., 2019). This replication study adopted an improved overall methodology with more stringent assessment protocols and monitoring. The longitudinal design included 122 inpatients from a psychosomatic hospital with a diagnosis of Major Depression Disorder displaying symptoms of moderate to severe major depression (n=80 females). The Cortisol awakening response (CAR) was measured at intake. Depression severity was assessed as Beck Depression Inventory II scores at intake, discharge, six weeks and six months following discharge. Results from the original study were replicated in terms of effect size but did not reach statistical significance (correlation between BDI-II 6 months after discharge and AUCg: r=-.213; p=.054). The replication study yielded nearly identical correlation coefficients as in the original study (BDI-II 6 months and CAR, r=-.223, p<.05). The replication of previously reported effect sizes with a concurrent lack of statistical significance in the more restrictive, larger and better controlled replication study may well inform research on psycho-endocrinological predictors for treatment success, but suggests a rather limited practical relevance for cortisol awakening response measures in this clinical context.

• Cropley, Mark; Weidenstedt, Linda; Leick, Birgit & Sütterlin, Stefan (2022). Working from home during lockdown: the association between rest breaks and well-being. Ergonomics. ISSN 0014-0139. doi: 10.1080/00140139.2022.2095038. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  One of the challenges with working from home (WFH) is the question of its effect on health and well-being. The impact of home working on health, has so far not been studied extensively. We address this gap by investigating the association between internal recovery, operationalised as rest break frequency (low, medium, high) during the working day, on self-reported musculoskeletal pain, and post-work recovery symptoms in knowledge workers (n=382) WFH. The analysis showed that failing to take frequent breaks was associated with a dose response increased risk of reporting headaches. For post-work recovery symptoms, failing to take rest breaks throughout the day was associated with an increased risk of reporting psychological fatigue, physical fatigue and sleep problems, and a decreased risk of psychologically detaching from work and experiencing adequate rest. Our findings emphasize the importance of remote workers taking recovery breaks from work demands in the maintenance of health and well-being. Key words: Remote working, stress, recovery from work, rest breaks, musculoskeletal pain, well-being Practitioner Summary For the foreseeable future, many knowledge-workers will be obliged to work from home for at least, some days of the week. It is important for workers to learn to regulate their behaviour, and workers need to be educated about the value of taking regular rest breaks throughout the working day.

• Schelhorn, Iris; Schlüter, Swantje; Paintner, Kerstin; Shiban, Youssef; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio & Meyer, Marie [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2022). Emotions and emotion up-regulation during the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany. PLOS ONE. 17(1). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0262283. Full text in Research Archive
• Børtveit, Line; Dechsling, Anders; Sütterlin, Stefan; Nordgreen, Tine & Nordahl-Hansen, Anders (2022). Guided Internet-Delivered Treatment for Depression: Scoping Review. JMIR Mental health. 9(10), p. 1–24. doi: 10.2196/37342. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Studies on guided internet-delivered treatment have demonstrated promising results for patients with depressive disorder. Objective: The aim of this study was to provide an overview of this research area and identify potential gaps in the research. Methods: In this scoping review, web-based databases were used to identify research papers published between 2010 and 2022 where guided internet-delivered treatment was administered to participants with depressive disorders, a standardized rating scale of depressive symptoms was used as the primary outcome measure, and the treatment was compared with a control condition. Results: A total of 111 studies were included, and an overview of the studies was provided. Several gaps in the research were identified regarding the design of the studies, treatments delivered, participant representation, and treatment completion. Conclusions: This review provides a comprehensive overview of the research area, and several research gaps were identified. The use of other designs and active control conditions is recommended. Future studies should provide access to treatment manuals, and more replications should be conducted. Researchers should aim to include underrepresented populations and provide reports of comorbidities. Definitions of adequate dosage, reports of completion rates, and reasons for treatment dropout are recommended for future studies.

• Neyer, Sabrina E.; Witthöft, Michael; Cropley, Mark; Pawelzik, Markus; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio & Sütterlin, Stefan (2021). Reduction of depressive symptoms during inpatient treatment is not associated with changes in heart rate variability. PLOS ONE. 16(3). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0248686. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Vagally mediated heart rate variability (HRV) is a psychophysiological indicator of mental and physical health. Limited research suggests there is reduced vagal activity and resulting lower HRV in patients with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD); however little is actually known about the association between HRV and symptoms of depression and whether the association mirrors symptom improvement following psychotherapy. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between antidepressant therapy, symptom change and HRV in 50 inpatients (68% females; 17–68 years) with a diagnosis of MDD. Severity of depressive symptoms was assessed by self-report (Beck Depression Inventory II) and the Hamilton Rating Scale of Depression. Measures of vagally mediated HRV (root mean square of successive differences and high-frequency) were assessed at multiple measurement points before and after inpatient psychotherapeutic and psychiatric treatment. Results showed an expected negative correlation between HRV and depressive symptoms at intake. Depressive symptoms improved (d = 0.84) without corresponding change in HRV, demonstrating a de-coupling between this psychophysiological indicator and symptom severity. To our knowledge, this study is the first to examine an association between HRV and depressive symptoms before and after psychotherapy. The observed de-coupling of depression and HRV, and its methodological implications for future research are discussed.

• Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Hjelmeland, Inger; Hansen, Mette Tindvik; Haug, Erna; Sütterlin, Stefan & Grønlien, Heidi Kristine (2021). Impact of initial emotional states and self-efficacy changes on nursing students’ practical skills performance in simulation-based education. Nursing Reports. ISSN 2039-439X. 11(2), p. 267–278. doi: 10.3390/nursrep11020026. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Training through simulation has shown to increase relevant and specific skills sets across a wide range of areas in nursing and related professions. Increasing skills has a reciprocal relation to the development of self-efficacy. A study was conducted to assess changes in the development of self-efficacy in simulation training for 2nd year nursing students. Initial emotional states, pre and post self-efficacy, and expert ratings of simulation performance were assessed. Results show that students who displayed an increase in self-efficacy as a result of simulation training were also judged to perform better by expert ratings. The effect of simulation on self-efficacy could be influenced by initial states of physiological activation and over control. Results also showed that initial emotional states did not moderate self-efficacy development on outcome measures. These findings improve our understanding on the relationship between students’ self-efficacy and performance of practical skills and inform pedagogical designs and targeted interventions in relation to feedback and supervision in nursing education.

• Mäses, Sten; Maennel, Olaf & Sütterlin, Stefan (2021). Using competency mapping for skill assessment in an introductory cybersecurity course. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing. ISSN 2194-5357. 1329, p. 572–583. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_56. Full text in Research Archive
• Maennel, Kaie; Kivimägi, Kristian; Maennel, Olaf; Sütterlin, Stefan & Ernits, Margus (2021). Remote Technical Labs: An Innovative and Scalable Component for University Cybersecurity Program Admission. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing. ISSN 2194-5357. 1329, p. 521–533. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-68201-9_51. Full text in Research Archive
• Sütterlin, Stefan; Knox, Benjamin James; Maennel, Kaie; Canham, Matthew & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2021). On the relationship between health sectors digitalization and sustainable health goals: A cyber security perspective. In Flahault, Antoine (Eds.), Transitioning to Good Health and Well-Being. MDPI. ISSN 9783038978640. Full text in Research Archive
• Domarkiene, Ingrida; Ambrozaitytė, Laima; Bukauskas, Linas; Rančelis, Tautvydas; Sütterlin, Stefan & Knox, Benjamin James [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2021). Cybergenomics: Application of behavioral genetics in cybersecurity. Behavioral Sciences. 11:152. doi: 10.3390/bs11110152. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Cybersecurity (CS) is a contemporary field for research and applied study of a range of aspects from across multiple disciplines. A cybersecurity expert has an in-depth knowledge of technology but is often also recognized for the ability to view technology in a non-standard way. This paper explores how CS specialists are both a combination of professional computing-based skills and genetically encoded traits. Almost every human behavioral trait is a result of many genome variants in action altogether with environmental factors. The review focuses on contextualizing the behavior genetics aspects in the application of cybersecurity. It reconsiders methods that help to identify aspects of human behavior from the genetic information. And stress is an illustrative factor to start the discussion within the community on what methodology should be used in an ethical way to approach those questions. CS positions are considered stressful due to the complexity of the domain and the social impact it can have in cases of failure. An individual risk profile could be created combining known genome variants linked to a trait of particular behavior using a special biostatistical approach such as a polygenic score. These revised advancements bring challenging possibilities in the applications of human behavior genetics and CS.

• Dechsling, Anders; Orm, Stian; Kalandadze, Tamara; Sütterlin, Stefan; Øien, Roald A & Shic, Frederick [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2021). Virtual and augmented reality in social skills interventions for individuals with autism spectrum disorder: A scoping review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. ISSN 0162-3257. p. 1–16. doi: 10.1007/s10803-021-05338-5. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In the last decade, there has been an increase in publications on technology-based interventions for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Virtual reality based assessments and intervention tools are promising and have shown to be acceptable amongst individuals with ASD. This scoping review reports on 49 studies utilizing virtual reality and augmented reality technology in social skills interventions for individuals with ASD. The included studies mostly targeted children and adolescents, but few targeted very young children or adults. Our findings show that the mode number of participants with ASD is low, and that female participants are underrepresented. Our review suggests that there is need for studies that apply virtual and augmented realty with more rigorous designs involving established and evidenced-based intervention strategies.

• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Sütterlin, Stefan; Knox, Benjamin James & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2021). Situational States Influence on Team Workload Demands in Cyber Defense Exercise. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS). ISSN 0302-9743. 13096, p. 3–20. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-90328-2_1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Cyber operations are increasingly automated processes that can occur at computational speed with the intent of reducing, or denying time for good decision making or time to ground communication between human agents. There is a lack of performance measures and metrics in cyber operation settings. One potential setting describing human performance could be emotional stability under stress. Measures of higher individual affective variability indicate more emotional adaptability and allows for measuring individuals as dynamic systems. Previous research in other security-sensitive high-stake situations has shown that individuals with less emotional adaptability display maladaptive behaviors while individuals with more emotional adaptability can adapt more efficiently to changing situations, show more confidence in their own abilities and skills, and display better performance. We hypothesized that measurements of affective variability during a cyber defense exercise will be associated with team workload demands. Data was collected from 13 cadets during the Norwegian Defence Cyber Academy’s annual Cyber Defense Exercise. Three indicators of individual affective variability were measured daily with the Self-Assessment Manikin and compared to scores on the Team Workload Questionnaire. We found that affective variability was negatively associated with team workload demands. Participants with higher affective variability, as measured by the Self-Assessment Manikin, will impose less workload demands on the team, which can lead to better outcomes. This is the first study to assess how individual emotional adaptability affects team dynamics in a cyber defense setting. Future research should include variable measurements as they may have better explanatory power for performance measurements.

• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Knox, Benjamin James & Sütterlin, Stefan (2021). Human-Human Communication in Cyber Threat Situations: A Systematic Review. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS). ISSN 0302-9743. 13096. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-90328-2_2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In cyber threat situations, decision-making processes within organizations and between the affected organization and external entities are high-stake. They require human communication entailing technical complexity, time pressure, interdisciplinary factors, and often an insufficient information basis. Communication in cyber threat situations can thus be challenging and has a variety of implications for decision-making. The cyber-physical system is a rapidly changing socio-technical system that is understudied in terms of how cyber events are communicated and acted upon to secure and maintain cyber resilience. The present study is the first to review human-to-human communication in cyber threat situations. Our aims are to outline how human-human communication performance in cybersecurity settings have been studied, to uncover areas where there is potential for developing common standards for information exchange in collaborative settings, and to provide guidance for future research efforts. The review was carried out according to the PRISMA guidelines and articles were searched for on scientific databases. Articles focusing on human-human communication in cyber threat situations published in peer reviewed journals or as conference papers were included. A total of 17 studies were included in the final review. Most of the studies were correlational and exploratory in nature. Very few studies characterize communication in useful goal-related terms. There is a need for more collaboration between cyber defense exercise-organizers and cognitive scientists. Future studies should assess how team mental model-development affects team communication and performance in cyber defense exercises.

• Dechsling, Anders; Shic, Frederick; Zhang, Dajie; Marschik, Peter B.; Esposito, Gianluca & Orm, Stian [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2021). Virtual reality and naturalistic developmental behavioral interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities. ISSN 0891-4222. 111:103885, p. 1–11. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2021.103885. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  <p>Background: Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions (NDBI) have been evaluated as the most promising interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder. In recent years, a growing body of literature suggests that technological advancements such as Virtual Reality (VR) are promising intervention tools. However, to the best of our knowledge no studies have combined evidence-based practice with such tools. <p>Aim: This article aims to review the current literature combining NDBI and VR, and provide suggestions on merging NDBI-approaches with VR. <p>Methods: This article is divided into two parts, where we first conduct a review mapping the research applying NDBI-approaches in VR. In the second part we argue how to apply the common features of NDBI into VR-technology. <p>Results: Our findings show that no VR-studies explicitly rely on NDBI-approaches, but some utilize elements in their interventions that are considered to be common features to NDBI. <p>Conclusions and implications: As the results show, to date, no VR-based studies have utilized NDBI in their intervention. We therefore, in the second part of this article, suggests ways to merge VR and NDBI and introduce the term Virtual Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions (VNDBI). VNDBI is an innovative way of implementing NDBI which will contribute in making interventions more accessible in central as well as remote locations, while reducing unwanted variation between service sites. VNDBI will advance the possibilities of individually tailoring and widen the area of interventions. In addition, VNDBI can provide the field with new knowledge on effective components enhancing the accuracy in the intervention packages and thus move forward the research field and clinical practice.

• Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Sütterlin, Stefan & Knox, Benjamin James (2021). The Influence of Team Workload Demands During a Cyber Defense Exercise on Team Performance. Communications in Computer and Information Science (CCIS). ISSN 1865-0929. 1499, p. 545–549. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-90179-0_70. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research has shown that cyber defense is dependent on individual functioning as well as teamwork[1, 2]. Research has identified teamwork factors, such as communication and coordination, that increase performance [1, 3], while more supporting behaviours, i.e. emotional and team support, have shown to inhibit team performance [3, 4] but currently the understanding of impact workloads have on performance is still limited [4]. The study investigated the role of team workload demands on team performance (effectiveness, dissatisfaction). Methods Data was collected during the Norwegian Defense Cyber Academy’s annual Cyber Defense Exercise. The Team Workload Questionnaire[5] was used as the independent variable to assess workload demands. The Teamwork component (communication, coordination, team performance monitoring) and Task-Team component (time-share, team emotion, team support) were used as predictors. For performance outcomes, two self-reported items were created, Team Effectiveness and Team Dissatisfaction, on a 10-point Likert scale (none-very). The study conformed to the Norwegian Social Science Data Services’ ethical guidelines. Participants gave their informed consent verbally and were informed that they could withdraw from participation at any time. Statistical analysis was done with JASP version .14.1[6]. Alpha levels were set to .05.   Results Teamwork demands (communication (β=.608), coordination (β =.224), team performance monitoring (β =-.149) could predict Team Effectiveness (R2=.632, F=5.16, p=.024). Task-team workload demands (team support (β =.328), team emotion (β=.878), time-share demands (β =-.196)) could predict Team Dissatisfaction (R2=.853, F=17.36, p<.001). Discussion This study investigated the influence of team workload demands on team performance. Results support the hypotheses. Teamwork demands could predict team effectiveness while Task-team demands could predict more negative aspects of team performance and the results are in line with previous research [3, 4, 7]. Future research in cyber security operations should incorporate team workload demands to assess performance. This research is funded by the Norwegian Research Council (#302941).

• Schelhorn, Iris; Ecker, Angelika; Lüdtke, Michael N.; Rehm, Stefan; Tran, Thomy & Bereznai, Judith L. [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2021). Psychological burden during the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany. Frontiers in Psychology. 12:640518, p. 1–12. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.640518. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  After the first COVID-19 case was diagnosed in Germany, various measures limiting contact between people were introduced across the country. The implementation of these measures varied between jurisdictions and potentially had a negative impact on the psychological well-being of many people. However, the prevalence, severity, and type of symptoms of psychological burden has not been documented in detail. In the current study, we analysed various self-reported symptoms of psychological burden in a German sample. The dataset was collected between April 8th and June 1st, 2020, through an online survey measuring psychological burden using the ICD-10-symptom rating scale. More than 2,000 individuals responded to the survey, with a total of 1,459 complete datasets. Data was then sampled to compare (1) the new data to an existing demographically comparable reference dataset including a total of 2,512 participants who did not undergo any kind of contact restrictions or other pandemic measurements, and (2) psychological burden in two different German states. In line with recent observations from Germany, Italy, China, Austria and Turkey, we found a high prevalence of depressive symptoms in comparison to the reference sample. Furthermore, we found a high prevalence of eating disorder and compulsion symptoms. Especially younger adults and women reported a higher symptom severity compared to other groups during our measurement period. However, no difference between the two states in psychological burden was found.

• Dechsling, Anders; Sütterlin, Stefan; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio & Halvorsen, Lars Rune (2021). A Critical View of the National Student Survey as a Quality Indicator in Norwegian Higher Education. Nordisk tidsskrift for pedagogikk og kritikk. 7, p. 362–375. doi: 10.23865/ntpk.v7.2306. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Student surveys are an integral part of quality assessment in the education sector and play a vital role in the justification of policies and decisions on governmental, institutional and individual levels. Each year in Norway a governmental agency for quality assurance in education conducts a national survey inviting all registered second year bachelor’s and master’s students to provide online feedback on their perceived study quality. We discuss the limits of the results' interpretability in the light of previous research criticising the validity of student surveys for the assessment of educational quality in general and discuss in more detail the limitations in the chosen Norwegian example. This article aims to increase the awareness of these challenges and stimulate a science-based development of alternative assessment forms of educational quality. The relationship between the educational sector's core activity and the survey's focus is discussed; suggestions for paths to improvement are made. We argue further that the nationwide assessment lays bare the conceptual deficits that may be of equally high importance for educational system evaluations in other countries.

• Egner, Lars Even; Sütterlin, Stefan & Calogiuri, Giovanna (2020). Proposing a Framework for the Restorative Effects of Nature through Conditioning: Conditioned Restoration Theory. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH). ISSN 1661-7827. 17(18). doi: 10.3390/ijerph17186792. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Natural environments have been shown to trigger psychological and physiological restoration in humans. A new framework regarding natural environments restorative properties is proposed. Conditioned restoration theory builds on a classical conditioning paradigm, postulating the occurrence of four stages: (i) unconditioned restoration, unconditioned positive affective responses reliably occur in a given environment (such as in a natural setting); (ii) restorative conditioning, the positive affective responses become conditioned to the environment; (iii) conditioned restoration, subsequent exposure to the environment, in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus, retrieves the same positive affective responses; and (iv) stimulus generalization, subsequent exposure to associated environmental cues retrieves the same positive affective responses. The process, hypothetically not unique to natural environments, involve the well-documented phenomenon of conditioning, retrieval, and association and relies on evaluative conditioning, classical conditioning, core affect, and conscious expectancy. Empirical findings showing that restoration can occur in non-natural environments and through various sensory stimuli, as well as findings demonstrating that previous negative experience with nature can subsequently lower restorative effects, are also presented in support of the theory. In integration with other existing theories, the theory should prove to be a valuable framework for future research.

• Rost, Silke; Crombez, Geert; Sütterlin, Stefan; Vögele, Claus; Veirman, Elke & Ryckeghem, Dimitri Van (2020). Altered regulation of negative affect in patients with fibromyalgia: A diary study. European Journal of Pain. ISSN 1090-3801. 25, p. 714–724. doi: 10.1002/ejp.1706. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Fibromyalgia is characterized by widespread musculoskeletal painand often accompanied by cognitive and emotional problems. Adaptation to fibromyalgia may therefore also rely on one's ability to regulate emotional problems. In this study, we examined two indices of emotion regulation, that is, (a) affective instability, involving frequent large fluctuations in self-reported affect, and (b) resting heart rate variability (HRV). Methods: Participants were 46 patients with fibromyalgia (Mage = 45.4 years; 39 females) and 46 matched healthy controls (Mage = 44.9 years; 37 females). Heart rate was monitored under resting conditions to derive HRV. Subsequently, participants completed an electronic end-of-day diary for 14 consecutive days assessing daily levels of pain, disability, negative affect (NA) and positive affect (PA). Affective instability was operationalized as the mean square of successive differences in daily mood. Results: Results indicate increased levels of NA instability and reduced levels of HRV in patients with fibromyalgia in comparison with healthy controls. Furthermore, HRV and NA instability were inversely related. Finally, in patients, higher NA instability was related to increased pain disability. Conclusions: Current findings support the idea that patients with fibromyalgia are confronted with fluctuating emotions. These results may have important implications for treatment as they provide support for the use of emotion regulation skills training in patients with fibromyalgia to impact upon NA instability. Significance: This study provides novel insight in the link between emotion regulation indices,that is, heart-rate variability and negative affective (NA) instability, in patients with fibromyalgia, and presents evidence for differences in both emotion regulation indices between patients with fibromyalgia and healthy people. Furthermore, results link increased NA instability with increased levels of daily disability in patients with fibromyalgia. Together, these findings offer support for a key role of emotion regulation in fibromyalgia outcomes, providing pathways for clinical practice.

• Bräscher, Anne-Kathrin; Sütterlin, Stefan; Scheuren, Raymonde; Bergh, Omer Van den & Witthöft, Michael (2020). Somatic Symptom Perception From a Predictive Processing Perspective – An Empirical Test Using the Thermal Grill Illusion. Psychosomatic Medicine. ISSN 0033-3174. 82(7), p. 708–714. doi: 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000824. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective: In a predictive processing perspective, symptom perceptions result from an integration of preexisting information in memory with sensory input. Physical symptoms can therefore reflect the relative predominance of either sensory input or preexisting information. In this study, we used the thermal grill illusion (TGI), which applies interlaced warm and cool temperatures to the skin to create a paradoxical heat-pain experience. Assuming that the TGI compared with single-temperature stimulation relies more importantly on an active integration process of the brain to create this paradoxical sensation, we tested the hypothesis whether a manipulation of the expectations during TGI would have more impact than during single-temperature stimulation. Methods: Sixty-four participants received different temperature combinations (16/16°C, 40/40°C, 16/40°C) with neutral, positive (“placebo”), and negative (“nocebo”) instructions. Subjective stimulus intensity was rated, and neuroticism and absorption (openness to absorbing and self-altering experiences) served as potential moderating factors. Results: The TGI condition was rated highest. Overall, negative instructions increased (p < .001, d = 0.58), whereas positive instructions did not significantly change the TGI intensity perception (versus neutral; p = .144, d = 0.19). In the TGI condition, increasedmodulation of pain was observed with higher neuroticism (β = 0.33, p = .005) and absorption (β = 0.30, p = .010). Conclusions: Whereas negative instructions induced a nocebo effect, no placebo effect emerged after positive instructions. The findings are in line with the predictive processing model of symptom perception for participants with higher levels of neuroticism and absorption. Key words: thermal grill illusion of pain, predictive coding, expectation, thermal stimulation, nocebo effect.

• Dechsling, Anders; Sütterlin, Stefan & Nordahl-Hansen, Anders (2020). Acceptability and normative considerations in research on Autism Spectrum Disorders and Virtual Reality. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS). ISSN 0302-9743. 12197, p. 161–170. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-50439-7_11. Full text in Research Archive
• Eikeseth, Fillip Ferreira; Sætren, Sjur Skjørshammer; Benjamin, Silje Beatrice Rognås; Eikenæs, Ingeborg Helene Ulltveit-Moe; Sütterlin, Stefan & Hummelen, Benjamin (2020). The test-retest reliability of heart rate variability and its association with personality functioning. Frontiers in Psychiatry. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.558145. Full text in Research Archive
• Nordahl-Hansen, Anders; Dechsling, Anders; Sütterlin, Stefan; Børtveit, Line; Zhang, Dajie & Øien, Roald A [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2020). An Overview of Virtual Reality Interventions for two Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Intellectual Disabilities and Autism. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS). ISSN 0302-9743. 12197, p. 257–267. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-50439-7_17. Full text in Research Archive
• Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Knox, Benjamin James; Jøsok, Øyvind & Sütterlin, Stefan (2020). Variable Self-efficacy as a Measurement for Behaviors in Cyber Security Operations. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS). ISSN 0302-9743. 12197, p. 395–404. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-50439-7_27. Full text in Research Archive
• Jøsok, Øyvind; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Knox, Benjamin James; Sütterlin, Stefan & Helkala, Kirsi Marjaana (2019). Self-regulation and cognitive agility in cyber operations. Frontiers in Psychology. 10(875). doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00875. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Reliance upon data networks to conduct military operations presents new challenges to the competence profiles of military personnel. Specifically the increased demand for the new category of military cyber personnel is a direct consequence of the utility of the cyber domain in contemporary military operations, both to support leadership processes and as a domain of operations on its own. The conflation of the cyber and physical domains empowers cyber operators to influence events beyond their immediate physical environment. Proper education and training of such personnel requires new insight into the competencies that are beyond cyber specific technical skills, to govern the complexity of operating in a cyber-physical hybrid environment. This pilot research contributes to the debate on military cyber personnel competencies by investigating how cyber defense operator’s level of self-regulation can contribute to their performance in operations. We hypothesize that higher levels of self-regulation predicts higher levels of cognitive agility as measured by cognitive movement in The Hybrid Space conceptual framework. Displays of cognitive agility within The Hybrid Space have previously been linked to performance in defensive cyber operations. A positive association was therefore expected between levels of self-regulation and displays of cognitive agility. N = 23 cyber cadets from the Norwegian Defence Cyber Academy (NDCA) completed self-regulation questionnaires (SRQs) and self-reported their cognitive location in The Hybrid Space during a 4-day cyber defense exercise. Data showed that higher levels of self-regulation were associated with displays of cognitive agility. According to the regression models in use, self-regulation could explain 43.1% of the total cognitive movements in The Hybrid Space. Understanding factors that contribute to cyber operator performance are needed to improve education and training programs for military cyber personnel. Validating self-regulation as a contributing factor to cognitive agility is important as this can be a pathway to empirically underpin individual cyber operator performance.

• Ask, Thorvald Fossåen; Ranjitkar, Suman; Ulak, Manjeswori; Chandyo, Ram Krishna; Hysing, Mari & Strand, Tor A [Show all 13 contributors for this article] (2019). The association between heart rate variability and neurocognitive and socio-emotional development in nepalese infants. Frontiers in Neuroscience. ISSN 1662-4548. 13(411), p. 1–10. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00411. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Many young children in developing countries do not reach their developmental potential. Traditional methods for assessing developmental outcome are time consuming, thus, physiological measures that can contribute to the prediction of developmental outcomes in high risk groups have been suggested. Vagally mediated heart rate variability (vmHRV) is considered a neurophysiological or peripheral proxy for prefrontal and executive functioning and might serve as a supplement for traditional measurements of developmental status and as a potential useful risk indicator. Aim: In the present study, we wanted to describe the vmHRV in Nepalese infants and relate it to the Bayley Scales of infant and toddler development, 3. edition (Bayley-III) subscales. Methods: 600 Nepalese infants were included in the study. At 6–11 and 17–24 months, we measured neurodevelopmental and socio-emotional outcomes by the Bayley-III. Inter-beat intervals were recorded at two measurement points when the children were 17–24 months. Results: There was a high intraclass correlation between HRV indices generated from the two measurement points. No significant associations between vmHRV and Bayley-III sub scales were found at any time. Conclusion: This study is the first to describe vmHRV in healthy infants and the relationship between Bayley-III scores. Our results suggest that vmHRV is not associated with measures of general development in infancy.

• Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Firth-Clark, Andrea; Knox, Benjamin James; Jøsok, Øyvind; Helkala, Kirsi Marjaana & Sütterlin, Stefan (2019). Cognitive Profiles and Education of Female Cyber Defence Operators. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS). ISSN 0302-9743. 11580 LNAI, p. 563–572. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-22419-6_40. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Rapid technological developments and definition of the cyber domain as a battlefield has challenged the cognitive attributes of its operators. In order to meet these demands, higher education programs in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) need to recruit suited. Recruitment to STEM studies focuses on increasing the amount of females in these studies, and factors involving retention also needs to be understood. This research focused on assessing the educational setting of Norwegian Defense Cyber Academy and its factors in promoting female student retention in their computer engineering program, and profiling female officer cadets to see if any differences in personality, cognitions, and behaviours strategies exist between male and female cadets.

• Sætren, Sjur Skjørshammer; Sütterlin, Stefan; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Prince-Embury, Sandra & Makransky, Guido (2019). A Multilevel Investigation of Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents: The Relationships Between Self-Perceived Emotion Regulation, Vagally Mediated Heart Rate Variability, and Personal Factors Associated with Resilience. Frontiers in Psychology. 10(438), p. 1–12. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00438. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Personal resiliency refers to individual attributes that are related to the process of successfully adapting to the environment in the face of adverse conditions, also known as resilience. Emotion regulation is increasingly found as a core component in mental health and found to modulate individual differences in the management of emotional responses. The Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents (RSCA; Prince-Embury, 2006, 2007) were designed to systematically identify and quantify core personal qualities of resiliency in youth, and includes Sense of Mastery scale (MAS), Sense of Relatedness scale (REL), and Emotional Reactivity (REA) scale. The following study was first conducted to confirm the Three-Factor model of Personal Resiliency in a Norwegian student sample using factor analytic procedures. Secondly and the main purpose of the study, was to investigate if personal resiliency is associated with self-reported measures related to emotion regulation, and with resting vagally mediated heart rate variability (vmHRV) as a psychophysiological index of emotion regulation capacity. A revised scale adapted to the Norwegian sample was developed. Results indicate that protective indices related to personal resiliency are associated with both self-reported adaptive emotion regulation and outcome, and partly related to high capacity for emotion regulation indicated by vmHRV. Risk related to personal vulnerability was associated with maladaptive emotion regulation and outcome, but was not associated with emotion regulation capacity. Together the findings provide supporting evidence of both self-reported and psychophysiological correlates between emotion regulatory processes and personal resiliency indicated by RSCA.

• Eikeseth, Fillip Ferreira; Denninghaus, Sabrina; Cropley, Mark; Witthöft, Michael; Pawelzik, Markus & Sütterlin, Stefan (2019). The cortisol awakening response at admission to hospital predicts depression severity after discharge in MDD patients. Journal of Psychiatric Research. ISSN 0022-3956. 111, p. 44–50. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.01.002. Full text in Research Archive

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• Knox, Benjamin James; Sütterlin, Stefan; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Fausett, Crystal M.; Canham, Matthew & Tsohou, Aggeliki [Show all 25 contributors for this article] (2027). Human Factors in IT Security: Cognitive Perspectives of Cybersecurity. Taylor & Francis Routledge. ISBN 9781041073666. 456 p. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This title offers an exploration of the human mind as the main line of defence against modern cyber threats. Unlike traditional approaches that focus solely on technology, it centres on the vulnerabilities in human cognition that attackers exploit to manipulate attitudes, perceptions, and decisions. By addressing hybrid warfare, social engineering, and precision persuasion, the concept of “cognitive security” is introduced which connects individual vulnerabilities to global societal risks. From cybercrime to AI-driven disruptions, the analysis spans public, private, and military domains, including NATO-led initiatives. This book provides the knowledge to navigate the evolving challenges of today’s digital age, offering analyses of the links between human cognition and cybersecurity. Beginning with a concise historical overview, the chapters unpack how human factors evolved from being a weak link to a critical focal point in cybersecurity. Further chapters explore risks to individuals and societies, challenges for decision-makers, and strategies for safeguarding mental resilience. Written to equip the reader with the tools to address modern threats, it connects technological expertise with an in-depth understanding of human cognition. Readers will gain practical insights into protecting themselves and others against manipulation that will enhance their personal performance and support overall societal well-being. Human Factors in IT Security: Cognitive Perspectives of Cybersecurity is an essential read for decision-makers, leaders, and professionals in human factors, cybersecurity, information technology, and information security.

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• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Sütterlin, Stefan; Canham, Matthew; Hermansen, Daniel & Knox, Benjamin James (2024). The UnCODE system: classifying the goals and methods of cognitive warfare. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James; Sütterlin, Stefan & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2024). Mental motstandskraft. In Berrefjord, Vivi Ringnes & Lund, Mass Soldal (Ed.), Cybermakt. En tverrfaglig innføring. Universitetsforlaget. ISSN 9788215057071. p. 334–352. Full text in Research Archive
• Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Juozapavičius, Aušrius; Lapin, Kristina; Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James & Sütterlin, Stefan (2023). The Role of Experience and Education in Resilience and Decision-Making in Cyber Threat Situations. Full text in Research Archive
• Sütterlin, Stefan; Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Mägerle, Sophia; Glöckler, Sandra; Wolf, Leandra & Schray, Julian [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2023). Individual Deep Fake Recognition Skills are Affected by Viewer’s Political Orientation, Agreement with Content and Device Used. Full text in Research Archive
• Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Sütterlin, Stefan; Knox, Benjamin James; Bukauskas, Linas; Brilingaitė, Agnė & Maennel, Olaf Manuel (2023). Editorial: The human factor in cyber security education. Frontiers in Education. 8. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2023.1277282. Full text in Research Archive
• Sütterlin, Stefan (2023). A Psychological Perspective on Insider Threats. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Kullman, Kaur; Sütterlin, Stefan; Knox, Benjamin James; Engel, Don & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2023). Neuroergonomics for Cybersecurity. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Sütterlin, Stefan; Canham, Matthew; Hermansen, Daniel & Knox, Benjamin James (2023). The Uncode System: A Neurocentric Systems Approach for Classifying the Goals and Methods of Cognitive Warfare. Full text in Research Archive
• Canham, Matthew; Sütterlin, Stefan; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Knox, Benjamin James; Ask, Torvald Fossåen & Sawyer, Ben (2022). Cognitive Security: Human Vulnerabilities, Exploits, and TTPs. Full text in Research Archive
• Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James; Sütterlin, Stefan & Kullman, Kaur (2022). Perception and human-machine interactions in cybersecurity. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Canham, Matthew; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Sütterlin, Stefan; Hermansen, Daniel & Knox, Benjamin James (2022). A System for Classifying the Neurocognitive Goals of Cognitive Warfare. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James; Sütterlin, Stefan & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2022). Situational Awareness at an Individual Level – Processing information. Full text in Research Archive
• Sütterlin, Stefan; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Knox, Benjamin James & Ask, Torvald Fossåen (2022). Cybersecurity – Our New Normal. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Canham, Matthew; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Sütterlin, Stefan; Hermansen, Daniel & Knox, Benjamin James (2022). Et System for å Klassifisere De Nevrokognitive Målene Til Kognitiv Krigføring. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Knox, Benjamin James & Sütterlin, Stefan (2022). Forskning under Bukkesprang: Cybersituasjonsbevissthet på Individ- og Team-nivå. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Sütterlin, Stefan; Knox, Benjamin James & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2022). Neuroergonomic Approaches to Improving Cyber Situational Awareness During Cyber Threat Situations. Full text in Research Archive
• Canham, Matthew; Sütterlin, Stefan; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Knox, Benjamin James & Ask, Torvald Fossåen (2022). Cognitive Security: Exploring the Human Layer. Full text in Research Archive
• Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Knox, Benjamin James; Ask, Torvald Fossåen & Sütterlin, Stefan (2022). ACDICOM Research. Full text in Research Archive
• Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James & Sütterlin, Stefan (2022). ACDICOM Project. Full text in Research Archive
• Ptacek, Martin; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Steptoe, Karl J. & Sütterlin, Stefan (2022). Evidence Base of the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment Approach in Applied Sport Psychology and Future Directions. Full text in Research Archive
• Sütterlin, Stefan; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Veng, Karl; Eck, Jonathan & Fritschi, Jonas [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2022). The Role of IT Background for Metacognitive Accuracy, Confidence and Overestimation of Deep Fake Recognition Skills. Full text in Research Archive
• Juozapavičius, Aušrius; Sütterlin, Stefan & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2022). Towards a metacognitive accuracy training in military education. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Helgetun, Ivar & Sütterlin, Stefan (2022). Neurophysiological and Emotional Influences on Team Communication and Metacognitive Cyber Situational Awareness During a Cyber Engineering Exercise. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio & Sütterlin, Stefan (2022). Cyber-situasjonsbevissthet. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio & Sütterlin, Stefan (2022). Cybersituasjonsforståelse: En nevrokognitiv tilnærming. Full text in Research Archive
• Torgersen, Leanne & Sütterlin, Stefan (2022). Patient Informed Consent, Ethical and Legal Considerations in the Context of Digital Vulnerability with Smart, Cardiac Implantable Electronic Devices. Full text in Research Archive
• Sütterlin, Stefan (2022). Vagally mediated heart rate variability as a non-invasive measure for momentary activation, recovery and long-term coping: possibilities, methods and caveats. Full text in Research Archive
• Sütterlin, Stefan; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio & Steen, Tommy van (2022). Implementing Behavioural Science Perspectives for Improved Cybersecurity Awareness Education in Organisations. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Sütterlin, Stefan; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Veng, Karl; Eck, Jonathan & Fritschi, Jonas [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2022). The Role of DLPFC Functioning for Deepfake Recognition Skills. Full text in Research Archive
• Knox, Benjamin James; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Sütterlin, Stefan & Ask, Torvald Fossåen (2021). The Human Factors. Full text in Research Archive
• Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Sütterlin, Stefan & Knox, Benjamin James (2021). The Influence of Team Workload Demands During a Cyber Defense Exercise on Team Performance. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research has shown that cyber defense is dependent on individual functioning as well as teamwork[1, 2]. Research has identified teamwork factors, such as communication and coordination, that increase performance [1, 3], while more supporting behaviours, i.e. emotional and team support, have shown to inhibit team performance [3, 4] but currently the understanding of impact workloads have on performance is still limited [4]. The study investigated the role of team workload demands on team performance (effectiveness, dissatisfaction). Methods Data was collected during the Norwegian Defense Cyber Academy’s annual Cyber Defense Exercise. The Team Workload Questionnaire[5] was used as the independent variable to assess workload demands. The Teamwork component (communication, coordination, team performance monitoring) and Task-Team component (time-share, team emotion, team support) were used as predictors. For performance outcomes, two self-reported items were created, Team Effectiveness and Team Dissatisfaction, on a 10-point Likert scale (none-very). The study conformed to the Norwegian Social Science Data Services’ ethical guidelines. Participants gave their informed consent verbally and were informed that they could withdraw from participation at any time. Statistical analysis was done with JASP version .14.1[6]. Alpha levels were set to .05.   Results Teamwork demands (communication (β=.608), coordination (β =.224), team performance monitoring (β =-.149) could predict Team Effectiveness (R2=.632, F=5.16, p=.024). Task-team workload demands (team support (β =.328), team emotion (β=.878), time-share demands (β =-.196)) could predict Team Dissatisfaction (R2=.853, F=17.36, p<.001). Discussion This study investigated the influence of team workload demands on team performance. Results support the hypotheses. Teamwork demands could predict team effectiveness while Task-team demands could predict more negative aspects of team performance and the results are in line with previous research [3, 4, 7]. Future research in cyber security operations should incorporate team workload demands to assess performance. This research is funded by the Norwegian Research Council (#302941).

• Sütterlin, Stefan; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio & Knox, Benjamin James (2021). Design and Cyber Security. Full text in Research Archive
• Sütterlin, Stefan & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2021). Dark Patterns and Deep Fakes. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Sütterlin, Stefan; Knox, Benjamin James & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2021). Situational States Influence on Team Workload Demands in Cyber Defense Exercise. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Knox, Benjamin James & Sütterlin, Stefan (2021). Science-Based Approaches to Improving Cyber Threat Communication. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Knox, Benjamin James & Sütterlin, Stefan (2021). Human-Human Communication in Cyber Threat Situations: A Systematic Review. Full text in Research Archive
• Børtveit, Line; Nordahl-Hansen, Anders Johan; Dechsling, Anders; Sütterlin, Stefan & Nordgreen, Tine (2021). Tredjegenerasjons atferdsanalyse i internettlevert behandling for pasienter med depresjon. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio & Sütterlin, Stefan (2021). ACDICOM: Advancing Cyber Defense by Improved Communication of Recognized Cyber Threat Situations . Full text in Research Archive
• Dechsling, Anders; Sütterlin, Stefan; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio & Halvorsen, Lars Rune (2021). Studiebarometeret måler ikke studiekvalitet. Full text in Research Archive
• Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio & Sütterlin, Stefan (2021). The role of healthcare professionals in cybersecurity. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Knox, Benjamin James & Sütterlin, Stefan (2021). Human-Human Communication in Cyber Threat Situations. Full text in Research Archive
• Sütterlin, Stefan & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2020). Social Engineering and Dark Patterns. Full text in Research Archive
• Dechsling, Anders; Orm, Stian; Øien, Roald A; Sütterlin, Stefan & Nordahl-Hansen, Anders (2020). Virtual Reality and Behavior Analytic Interventions on Social Skills for People with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Review. Full text in Research Archive
• Maennel, Kaie; Kim, Joonsoo & Sütterlin, Stefan (2020). From Text Mining to Evidence Team Learning in Cybersecurity Exercises. Full text in Research Archive
• Dechsling, Anders; Sütterlin, Stefan & Nordahl-Hansen, Anders (2020). Acceptability and normative considerations in research on Autism Spectrum Disorders and Virtual Reality. Full text in Research Archive
• Nordahl-Hansen, Anders; Dechsling, Anders; Sütterlin, Stefan; Børtveit, Line; Zhang, Dajie & Øien, Roald A [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2020). Virtual Reality Interventions: Autism and Intellectual Disabilities. Full text in Research Archive
• Orm, Stian; Dechsling, Anders; Sütterlin, Stefan; Øien, Roald A & Nordahl-Hansen, Anders Johan (2020). Virtual Reality to Enhance Social and Emotional Skills in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Full text in Research Archive
• Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio; Knox, Benjamin James & Sütterlin, Stefan (2019). Cyber Defense Officer Profiles and Performance factors. Full text in Research Archive
• Ask, Torvald Fossåen; Knox, Benjamin James; Sütterlin, Stefan & Lugo, Ricardo Gregorio (2024). Neuroergonomic Approaches to Understanding and Improving Communication of Recognized Cyber Threat Situations. Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet. ISSN 9788232681471. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Cyber threat situations entail high-stake decision-making processes both within organizations and between the affected organization and external entities. During cyber threat situations, information is shared between individuals tasked with detecting and analyzing cyber threats (cyber operators) and the individuals tasked with making decisions based on receiving that information. This communication often entails technical complexity and is subject to challenges including time pressure, interdisciplinary factors, and frequently an insufficient information basis. These challenges may have a variety of implications for cyber defense decision-making and more research is needed. Previous research has suggested that there is not enough focus on the role cognition plays in the performance of cyber operators. With cyber threats increasingly challenging the security of digital infrastructures, understanding the cognitive processes underlying human communication becomes crucial. Approaching cognition from the perspective of neuroscience may uncover methodologies that are currently unexplored. This dissertation delves into the application of neuroergonomic approaches to enhance human-to-human communication during cyber threat situations, presenting a theoretical framework grounded in neuroscience findings. The dissertation includes three foundational studies on the dynamics of team communication and situational awareness in cyber defense settings. The findings highlight the significance of neurophysiological indicators of activity in structures that participate in coordinating cognitive processes and tools that facilitate multisensory integration of cyber threat information as potential influencers of team communication effectiveness and metacognitive situational awareness. A key innovation of this thesis is the exploration of mixed reality technologies in facilitating dyadic team communication and enhancing cyber situational awareness. By comparing 3D mixed reality with traditional 2D representations of network attacks, the study indicates that mixed reality technology can lead to improved communication and awareness among cyber defense teams, although the impact on decision-making requires further exploration. The dissertation concludes with a critical discussion on the broader implications of these findings for cybersecurity practices and makes suggestions for future research efforts to validate findings. By bridging the gap between neuroscience and cybersecurity, this dissertation lays the groundwork for developing more resilient defenses against cyber threats.

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