Ingjerd Skafle

Norwegian version of this page Department of Education, ICT and Learning

Press photo

Norwegian version of this page Position

Associate Professor

Contact

+4769608303

ingjerd.skafle@hiof.no

Study place

Halden

Office nr.

EU1-067

Academic interests

I am a Doctoral Research Fellow at Østfold University College and enrolled in the PhD program at the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Oslo. In my PhD thesis, I will research how the perception of autism is shaped by social media.

Background

Education:

Bachelor's in culture and social science from the University of Oslo (UiO). I spent one semester in India where I studied Social Anthropology.
Master's in Area Studies (focus on North America) from UiO. My master thesis focused on immigration and identity in the US.
Teacher Education Programme at UiO.
Master's in Special Education from Østfold University College. I researched how autistic high school students experienced the social aspects of school.
PhD from the University of Oslo, Medical Faculty, Institute of Clinical Medicine. My PhD-Thesis is called: Social Media Shaping Perceptions of Autism: A Mixed Method Study.

Work Experience:

I have a variety of prior work experiences. I have worked at the Norwegian Refugee Council, the Norwegian Directorate of Immigration, and also worked as a high school teacher in both mainstream high schools and at a department for students with special needs. While studying I worked in kindergartens, nursing homes, a theater, a cemetery (!), and a child welfare institution.

Projects

Autism in Media

Research groups

DeveLeP – Development Learning and Psychological Processes

Tags: The Digital Society, DigiEd

Rebecchi, Kevin; López-Resa, Patricia; Skafle, Ingjerd; Kalandadze, Tamara; Gabarron, Elia & Nordahl-Hansen, Anders (2026). Wikipediautism: A Multilingual Analysis of Autism-Related Wikipedia Articles in Six Languages. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. ISSN 0162-3257. doi: 10.1007/s10803-026-07416-y. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background Wikipedia is a major health information resource, yet little is known about how autism is represented across language editions. Objectives To examine sourcing, framing, editorial dynamics and readership of autism-related Wikipedia pages in six languages (English, Spanish, French, Italian, Norwegian and Georgian). Methods We constructed a corpus of the main autism article in each language and used Python-based pipelines to extract references, revision histories (2004–2024) and monthly pageviews (2020–2024). We conducted descriptive statistics, lexicometric analyses and inductive thematic coding. Results Across languages, autism is lexically and thematically framed primarily as a childhood, biomedical condition: child-related terms outranked adult-related terms in all editions, and “neurodiversity” appeared only marginally. Sourcing patterns differed markedly, with English and Italian relying more heavily on journals, French and Spanish on websites, Norwegian on institutional documents and Georgian under-sourced. Pageviews were highly unequal in absolute terms but, once normalised per million speakers, smaller language communities (Georgian, Norwegian and Italian) showed the highest relative demand. These high-demand editions nonetheless had the smallest editorial bases and fewest cumulative edits. Conclusion Autism-related Wikipedia pages constitute pivotal but uneven knowledge infrastructures. Strengthening adult, lifespan and neurodiversity perspectives and supporting smaller language communities could improve the robustness of online autism information.
López-Resa, Patricia; Skafle, Ingjerd; Rebecchi, Kevin; Kalandadze, Tamara; Nordahl-Hansen, Anders & Gabarrón, Elia (2026). Discursive constructions of autism on social media: a multilingual analysis across five languages. Frontiers in Psychology. 17. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1769965. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Introduction Language choices in autism-related social media discourse reflect ideological models and shape public understanding. Although neuroaffirmative and identity-first language is increasingly visible, cross-linguistic patterns on social media remain poorly understood. These platforms provide a valuable setting to observe how autistic identity and competing medical and neuroaffirmative frameworks circulate internationally. Methods This observational multilingual study analyzed 678 public posts collected through stratified keyword sampling in English, Spanish, French, Norwegian, and Georgian. Posts were normalized, anonymized, and classified using multilingual lexicons and sentence-embedding-assisted disambiguation. Variables included theoretical frame (medical, neuroaffirmative, both, neutral), linguistic style (identity-first, person-first), sentiment (−5 to +5), and engagement metrics. Descriptive statistics and longitudinal trend analyses were conducted. Results Medical and neuroaffirmative discourse coexisted across languages. Spanish showed the highest medical framing (45.1%), while English (43.4%) and French (36.4%) favored neuroaffirmative discourse; Norwegian and Georgian leaned neutral. Identity-first language predominated overall, with person-first usage most frequent in Norwegian and minimal in Georgian. Sentiment was largely neutral. Engagement varied by language, with identity-first posts generating the highest interaction in English. Neuroaffirmative discourse increased across all languages after 2023. Discussion Autism discourse on X/Twitter reflects a global but uneven shift toward neuroaffirmative and identity-first language shaped by linguistic and cultural context, positioning social media as a key arena for renegotiating autistic identity and expertise.
Skafle, Ingjerd; Gabarron, Elia & Nordahl-Hansen, Anders (2024). Social media shaping autism perception and identity. Autism. ISSN 1362-3613. 28(10). doi: 10.1177/13623613241230454. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
The aim of this study was to explore how autistic adults experienced using social media to find information about autism, and how they experienced online autistic communities. There is little research on the rationale why autistic people look for information on autism via social media, and on how such information is perceived from an autistic viewpoint. Twelve Norwegian autistic adults (aged 18–49 years) completed semi-structured interviews where they discussed social media and content specifically about autism and online autistic communities. Using reflexive thematic analysis, three main themes were developed. The themes were (1) Representation and Identity: An Online Journey; (2) An Unreliable, but Necessary Tool; and (3) Tensions and Discord. The findings indicated that even though social media was looked upon as an unreliable information source, the participants found information that helped them to learn about their experiences which had not been fully captured by the majority of the current research literature and online health sites. Also, social media groups for autistic people did not necessarily create a sense of community, as participants reported feeling alienated by hostile discussions. This study highlights the importance of having a greater variation and availability of information about autism online through official health channels.
Gabarron, Elia; Skafle, Ingjerd; Nordahl-Hansen, Anders & Wynn, Rolf (2023). Social media interventions for autistic individuals: Systematic review. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 14. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1089452. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background: Research on the use of digital technologies for delivering behavioral interventions has shown mixed evidence on their efficacy for improving both autistic symptoms and co-occurring psychiatric disorders. Little knowledge exists on the specific use or efficacy of using social media in interventions aimed at autistic individuals. Objective: To review and describe the current existing evidence-based research on the use of social media in interventions aimed at autistic individuals. Methods: A search was conducted across 8 databases (PubMed; EMBASE; Cochrane Library; PsycInfo; ERIC; Education Source; Web of Science; and IEEE Xplore). We included primary studies and reviews that dealt with autism spectrum disorder (ASD); described interventions that use social media; and reported results from the intervention. The quality of the evidence of the included primary studies was graded according to the GRADE criteria, and the risk of bias in systematic reviews was assessed by drawing on the AMSTAR guidelines. Results were synthesized and sorted by quality of evidence. Results: A total of nine articles were included in this review: eight primary studies (five non-randomized interventions and three randomized interventions) and one systematic review. The total number of participants with an ASD-diagnosis in the included studies was 164 (aged 5 to 22 years old). Studies weighted as being of moderate quality of evidence have reported significant positive effects in the groups that received the social media interventions: increased social engagement and participation in life situations; increased physical activity level; increased improvement on occupational performance, specified goals, and behavioral problems; and decreased plaque scores coupled with parent reports of intervention success. None of the studies have reported any negative effects linked to social media interventions. Conclusion: There is very little evidence of good quality on the use of social media in interventions aimed at autistic individuals. While there is a need for more high-quality studies, all the included studies, with one exception found positive results of the interventions. These findings are encouraging, suggesting that social media-based interventions may in fact be useful for supporting behavioral changes in autistic individuals. Systematic review registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?RecordID=337185, identifier CRD42022337185.
Skafle, Ingjerd; Nordahl-Hansen, Anders; Quintana, Daniel; Wynn, Rolf & Gabarron, Elia (2022). Misinformation about Covid-19 Vaccines on Social Media: Rapid Review. Journal of Medical Internet Research (JMIR). ISSN 1439-4456. 24(8). doi: 10.2196/37367. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background: The development of COVID-19 vaccines has been crucial in fighting the pandemic. However, misinformation about the COVID-19 pandemic and vaccines is spread on social media platforms at a rate that has made the World Health Organization coin the phrase infodemic. False claims about adverse vaccine side effects, such as vaccines being the cause of autism, were already considered a threat to global health before the outbreak of COVID-19. Objective: We aimed to synthesize the existing research on misinformation about COVID-19 vaccines spread on social media platforms and its effects. The secondary aim was to gain insight and gather knowledge about whether misinformation about autism and COVID-19 vaccines is being spread on social media platforms. Methods: We performed a literature search on September 9, 2021, and searched PubMed, PsycINFO, ERIC, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, and the Cochrane COVID-19 Study Register. We included publications in peer-reviewed journals that fulfilled the following criteria: original empirical studies, studies that assessed social media and misinformation, and studies about COVID-19 vaccines. Thematic analysis was used to identify the patterns (themes) of misinformation. Narrative qualitative synthesis was undertaken with the guidance of the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) 2020 Statement and the Synthesis Without Meta-analysis reporting guideline. The risk of bias was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal tool. Ratings of the certainty of evidence were based on recommendations from the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation Working Group. Results: The search yielded 757 records, with 45 articles selected for this review. We identified 3 main themes of misinformation: medical misinformation, vaccine development, and conspiracies. Twitter was the most studied social media platform, followed by Facebook, YouTube, and Instagram. A vast majority of studies were from industrialized Western countries. We identified 19 studies in which the effect of social media misinformation on vaccine hesitancy was measured or discussed. These studies implied that the misinformation spread on social media had a negative effect on vaccine hesitancy and uptake. Only 1 study contained misinformation about autism as a side effect of COVID-19 vaccines. Conclusions: To prevent these misconceptions from taking hold, health authorities should openly address and discuss these false claims with both cultural and religious awareness in mind. Our review showed that there is a need to examine the effect of social media misinformation on vaccine hesitancy with a more robust experimental design. Furthermore, this review also demonstrated that more studies are needed from the Global South and on social media platforms other than the major platforms such as Twitter and Facebook.
Gabarron, Elia; Dechsling, Anders; Skafle, Ingjerd & Nordahl-Hansen, Anders (2022). Discussions of Asperger Syndrome on Social Media: Content and Sentiment Analysis on Twitter. JMIR Formative Research. 6(3). doi: 10.2196/32752. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Background: On May 8, 2021, Elon Musk, a well-recognized entrepreneur and business magnate, revealed on a popular television show that he has Asperger syndrome. Research has shown that people’s perceptions of a condition are modified when influential individuals in society publicly disclose their diagnoses. It was anticipated that Musk's disclosure would contribute to discussions on the internet about the syndrome, and also to a potential change in the perception of this condition. Objective: The objective of this study was to compare the types of information contained in popular tweets about Asperger syndrome as well as their engagement and sentiment before and after Musk’s disclosure. Methods: We extracted tweets that were published 1 week before and after Musk's disclosure that had received >30 likes and included the terms “Aspergers” or “Aspie.” The content of each post was classified by 2 independent coders as to whether the information provided was valid, contained misinformation, or was neutral. Furthermore, we analyzed the engagement on these posts and the expressed sentiment by using the AFINN sentiment analysis tool. Results: We extracted a total of 227 popular tweets (34 posted the week before Musk’s announcement and 193 posted the week after). We classified 210 (92.5%) of the tweets as neutral, 13 (5.7%) tweets as informative, and 4 (1.8%) as containing misinformation. Both informative and misinformative tweets were posted after Musk’s disclosure. Popular tweets posted before Musk’s disclosure were significantly more engaging (received more comments, retweets, and likes) than the tweets posted the week after. We did not find a significant difference in the sentiment expressed in the tweets posted before and after the announcement. Conclusions: The use of social media platforms by health authorities, autism associations, and other stakeholders has the potential to increase the awareness and acceptance of knowledge about autism and Asperger syndrome. When prominent figures disclose their diagnoses, the number of posts about their particular condition tends to increase and thus promote a potential opportunity for greater outreach to the general public about that condition.
Skafle, Ingjerd; Gabarron, Elia; Dechsling, Anders & Nordahl-Hansen, Anders Johan (2021). Online Attitudes and Information-Seeking Behavior on Autism, Asperger Syndrome, and Greta Thunberg. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH). ISSN 1661-7827. 18(9), p. 4981–4981. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18094981. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
The purpose of this study was to examine Internet trends data and sentiment in tweets mentioning autism, Asperger syndrome, and Greta Thunberg during 2019. We used mixed methods in analyzing sentiment and attitudes in viral tweets and collected 1074 viral tweets on autism that were published in 2019 (tweets that got more than 100 likes). The sample from Twitter was compared with search patterns on Google. In 2019, Asperger syndrome was closely connected to Greta Thunberg, as of the tweets specifically mentioning Asperger (from the total sample of viral tweets mentioning autism), 83% also mentioned Thunberg. In the sample of tweets about Thunberg, the positive sentiment expressed that Greta Thunberg was a role model, whereas the tweets that expressed the most negativity used her diagnosis against her and could be considered as cyberbullying. The Google Trends data also showed that Thunberg was closely connected to search patterns on Asperger syndrome in 2019. The study showed that being open about health information while being an active participant in controversial debates might be used against you but also help break stigmas and stereotypes.
Skafle, Ingjerd; Øien, Roald A & Nordahl-Hansen, Anders (2020). Secondary and Postsecondary Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder. In Volkmar, Fred R. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders: living edition. Springer Science+Business Media B.V.. ISSN 9781461464358. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-6435-8_102202-1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
This entry addresses topics regarding students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) without intellectual disabilities (ID) in secondary and postsecondary education. This is a group of individuals on the autism spectrum that is often referred to as having a higher functioning autism (Zeliadt 2016) or has been diagnosed with Asperger syndrome according to The International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) (World Health Organization 1992). One of the hallmarks of ASD is to have challenges when it comes to social communication, thus making students with ASD at risk of being socially excluded in school settings. In this entry, we address issues pertaining to students with ASD without ID’s school – and student life, especially issues regarding social experiences and mental well-being.
Skafle, Ingjerd; Nordahl-Hansen, Anders & Øien, Roald A (2019). Short report: Social perception of High School students with ASD in Norway. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. ISSN 0162-3257. p. 1–6. doi: 10.1007/s10803-019-04281-w. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
An increasing number of students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) enroll in inclusive schools and classrooms. The aim of this study was to research how students with ASD experience the social aspect of inclusive high schools. Five adolescences with Asperger syndrome were interviewed, and the results show that high school was perceived as an important platform for social training, and an equally important place to find new friends and acquaintances. A majority of the participants had experienced loneliness and bullying in junior high school. However, they experienced high school as a new start, with a more open and inclusive environment. Nevertheless, several of the participants expressed that they used quite a lot of energy on social settings, such as interpreting social situations and on being amongst a larger group of students. In order to support this group of adolescents in their schooling, it is important to look at their strength and resources, and not only focus on the challenges and difficulties.

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Johansson, Veslemøy Maria Fossum; Herrebrøden, Marte Karoline & Skafle, Ingjerd (2026). The fight for justice and equality: Parental perspectives on school choice in Norway. Full text in Research Archive
Herrebrøden, Marte Karoline; Skafle, Ingjerd; Marentakis, Georgios & Nordahl-Hansen, Anders (2026). Unlocking the Potential of Hearing Protection Devices in Supporting Inclusive School Environments for Autistic Students. Full text in Research Archive
Herrebrøden, Marte Karoline; Skafle, Ingjerd; Marentakis, Georgios & Nordahl-Hansen, Anders (2026). Hearing Protection Devices for Autistic Students Sensitive to Auditory Stimuli: Enhancing School Inclusivity? doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.15086.57923. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Autistic students with auditory sensitivity often experience sensory overload in school due to insufficient adaptation of the auditory environment (Price & Romualdez, 2025). These challenges can negatively affect learning, academic performance, and social-emotional well-being (Keith et al., 2019; Poulsen et al., 2025). Hearing protection devices (HPDs) show potential to support autistic students in managing sensory environments (Pfeiffer et al., 2019; Kwong et al., 2025). Educational professionals require sufficient competence to balance benefits and drawbacks of these technologies to support inclusive practices. Despite the widespread use of hearing protection devices among autistic students, there is limited empirical research and guidance to inform their appropriate use (Herrebrøden et al., 2025). Objective: To explore educational professionals’ experiences and perspectives on the use of HPDs for autistic students in school, including their competence and systemic approaches. The overall aim is to increase awareness of how educational environments and HPDs can support inclusive practices for students with auditory sensitivities.
Skafle, Ingjerd (2025). Perceptions of Autism. Full text in Research Archive
Skafle, Ingjerd (2025). Social media experiences of autistic adults. Full text in Research Archive
Skafle, Ingjerd (2025). Misinformation About COVID-19 Vaccines on Social Media. Full text in Research Archive
Skafle, Ingjerd (2024). Autisme: Tilrettelegging og inkludering. Full text in Research Archive
Skafle, Ingjerd (2024). Autisme og nevrodiversitetsbevegelsen. Full text in Research Archive
Skafle, Ingjerd (2024). Social media and autism. Influence, sources of information and misinformation. Full text in Research Archive
Skafle, Ingjerd (2024). Sosiale medier og autisme: Påvirkning, informasjonskilder og feilinformasjon. Full text in Research Archive
Gabarron, Elia; Skafle, Ingjerd; Nordahl-Hansen, Anders & Wynn, Rolf (2022). Social media interventions for autism. Full text in Research Archive
Skafle, Ingjerd; Dechsling, Anders; Nordahl-Hansen, Anders & Gabarron, Elia (2022). Online attitudes and information-seeking behavior on autism and Asperger’s syndrome. Full text in Research Archive
Skafle, Ingjerd; Gabarron, Elia & Berntsen, Hasse (2021). Greta Thunbergs diagnose gjør henne til både et forbilde og en hakkekylling. [Internet]. Forskning.no. Full text in Research Archive Show summary
Hun har fått merke at det eksisterer mange myter om autisme.
Skafle, Ingjerd (2020). Social well-being of autistic high school students in mainstream high schools in Norway. Thrive Nordics. Full text in Research Archive
Nordahl-Hansen, Anders Johan; Skafle, Ingjerd & Øien, Roald A (2020). Elever med autisme og deres opplevelse av sosiale aspekter i videregående skole. Full text in Research Archive
Skafle, Ingjerd; Øien, Roald A & Nordahl-Hansen, Anders (2019). Autistic Student's Perception of Social Inclusion inUpper High-School: A Fresh Start. Full text in Research Archive

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Published June 16, 2020 11:49 AM - Last modified Feb. 8, 2026 10:40 AM